E`HPMSPF SPFtPOA¡PQrP E`HP¸PPAnPL

mPFAnFU``uXPrP vhPFE`tPOhPFA``usPF E`HPMSPF SPFtPOA¡PQrP E`HP¸PPAnPL ePkPPE`WvPF û``uHPÂpPFE`HPkPP aDPFzAbPLP| E`HP¸PPAnPL oPF çpPOLyUEÀoPLÝrP eP``utPOA nPLAWvPFkPPQbPL açLgPFgPOE`tPO aA``ugPOkPPArP ukPPAnPLoPF SPFtPOA¡PQgOUE`lP``utPO udPLKPA yPAbPLE`nPLP| E`kPPCUF E`kPPCUF aAE`HPúPOArP ( discovery ) oPF wvPO«PFAHPnPL ( invention ) ePHPM E`kPPCUF E`kPPCUF GPLWvPFnPLA ePvhPF SPFtPOA¡PQ``utPOvhPF mPFAnFU``uXPrP jPLQHP``unPL gPOBPOQrP u`rPKPApPOLAtPO kPP``u`rP``uCPF ; asPFMKPzBPOA``uHP E`HP``uSL÷PrP sPFmPFéPF udPL``uSPFrP mPFAnFUXP oPF jPLQ``uHPrP jPLQHPnPLyPAÀeOL`AbPL CPFApPOL ufPO``ulP``uCPFP| aAmPFrPA ePvhPF DPFArPAHPAE`hPFkPP E`nPLHP``uÓ÷Pì ( aAmPFA``udPLrP pPOLCPFÓOdP kPPrPA ) E`kPPCUF E`kPPCUF aAE`HPúPOArP oPF wvPO«PFAHPnPL ePHPM GPLWvPFnPLA tUO``ulP DPFrPArP ucPFêPLA kPP``u`rPE`CPFP|

ePkPPWvPFA aAKPzAnPL [ 1 ] E`dPL``u`bPL SFUrPq kPPE`rPP| usPF sPFmPFbPLWvPFA ÞnPLE`HPMSPF SPFtPOA¡PQrP eP``ukPPHPA``u`rP uSPFXPE`dPL``ukPP- uSPFAnPLA yPA``u©CPF E`HPMSPF SPFtPOA¡PQrP pPOLdPLDOHPE`nPLP| E`HPSL÷PE`HP`çLSPFqtPO E`HP¸PPAnPLQ lPwPOY ukPPlPE`BPOnPL [ wvPOvhPFE`lPbPLAmPF TPmPFsPFnPL, 1824-1907 ] wvPOEÀoPLÝ kPPrP``ulPnPL:

"There is nothing new to be discovered in physics now, all that remains is more and more precise measurement."

" ePKPnPL aArP ukPPAnPLoPF nPLtUOnPL aAE`HPE`ãFíPLïLbPLArP sPFÆPFAHPnPLA unPLvhPF; pPOLdPLATPY E`HPdPLzAbPL, yPA' HPAE`kPP rP``u`bPL``uCPF tPOA' hPFlP sFZ¾PP uTP``ukPP sFZ¾PPtPOrP mPFApPOLnPLP|"

tPOKPnPLkPPArP kPPTPA DPFrP``ulP lPwPOY ukPPlPBPO``unPLrP kPPTPA aE`tPOSPF``u`bPLAEÀoPLÝ HP``ulP mPF``unPL hPFbPLE`nPL kPPArPNP, kPP``uyPkPP HPðsPFrP aA``ugPO 1895 uTP``ukPP 1897 sPFA``ulP cPFArPE`WvPF E`HPrPAWvPF aAE`HPúPOArP hPF``u`bPL``uCPF tPOA' hPFlP ( yPTPAÀePÝ``umPF ), rPnPL``ujPLnPL rPE`åÉP, vhPF``ulPkPPæWvPFnPL, E`jPLmPFAnPL eP``ufPOÁPO oPF utPOjPLãFFkFÖObPLtPOAP|
usPFvhPF sPFmPFbPL tPOAÿrP a¸PPA``utPO, tPOKPnPL uHPADPFkPPE`rP, E`lP``uKP cPF``ulP``uCPFnPL jPLAmPFYAnPLQrP ePkPP kFUOE`VPF``utPO, umPFAmPFHPAE`tPOrP aA``ulPA``utPO, mPFzA½P ÂpPFzAÌPO tPOAÿrP E`HPKPzAtPO gPO``uHPXPNPApPOLÀeOL` yPA``utPO mPFtPO çpPOLkPPASPF kPPrP``ulPnPL- SPFEÀoPLÝ ( energy ) E`nPLE`mPFYtPO hPFbPL ¾FUOædP ¾FUOædP 'pPOLzA``ukPPWvPF' sPFM``uyPA``ugPO, yPA``ukPP HPlPA yP``utPO pPOLA``u`rP '``ukPPAbPLA×FWvPFA' ( quanta )P| tPOKPnPLoPF jPLAmPFYAnPLQrP GPL``u`rP GPL``u`rP E`HPdLUzð aA``usPFE`nPL, aAWvPFlPAE×FWvPFkPP pPOLArP hPF``u`bPL sFUdLZrP aA``umPFE`rPkPPAbPL ePE`wPOsPFnPL ePHPM uWvPFsPFlPA çpPOLE`tPO GPL``u`rP E`HPdLUzð udPLHPArP cPFzA``ulPÑP E`nPL``u`bPL``uCPFnPLP| ÂpPFzA``uÌPOrP çpPOLéPFAHP E`HP¸PPA``unPLrP mPFAnPLE`cPFÀeOL```ukPP E`dPLlP pPOLAlP``uWvPF, E`HP¸PPAnPL JPFAÿEpPOL``u`bPL pPOLwxPF``ulPA 'mPFzA``uÀePÝA' (macro) HPA 'aE`tPO' uTP``ukPP 'mPFAvhPF``uÀePÝA' (micro) HPA 'sFZ¾PP'-utPOP| jPLQHP``unPLrP HPAE`kPP çpPOLAbPL sPFAtPOcPFEÂlPSPF HPðsPF``u`rP ÂpPFzAÌPO udPL``uKP``uCPFnPL E`HPdLUz``utPO cPFlPA kPPtPO HPzHPhPFAyPY E`HP``uSL÷PrP GPL``u`rP GPL``u`rP ; yPKPnPL udPLhPF rPAKP``ulPnPL- FpOLÖETPHPQ``utPO eP``ulPA çpPOLTPmPF 'kPPE`ÈOLpPOLwvPOWvPFArP'- SPFtPOA¡PQrP sPFHP uTP``ukPP HPwxPF E`HPäFÉPbPLP|
HPéUFtPOß, ÂpPFzA``uÌPOrP '``ukPPAbPLA×FWvPFA-tPOñPL' ePHPM aAvhPFnPLãOFWvPFAvhPF``unPLrP 'E`HP``uSPFXP aA``upPOLE`¾PPkPPtPOA HPAdPL' E`HPMSPF SPFtPOA¡PQrP E`HP¸PPAnPL-gPO``uHPXPNPAbPL ePkPP aA``ulPAwxPFnPL sFÖE`êPL kPPrP``ulPA yPArP çpPOLBPOAHP gPOE`wxPF``u`bPL cPF``ulP eP``usPF``uCPF ePkPPE`HPMSPF SPFtPOA¡PQ``utPOP| SFUDFU pPOLdPLATPYE`HPdPLzAbPL nPLbPL, E`HP¸PPA``unPLrP anPLzAnPLz SPFAKPA ePHPM çpPOLyUEÀoPLÝE`HPdPLzA gPOBPOQrPBPOA``uHP çpPOLBPOAHPAE`Ó÷OLtPO hPFlP ePHPM ePvhPF çpPOLBPOAHP gPO``uHPXPNPAgPOA``u`rPrP cPFArP udPLoPFbPLA``ulPrP mPF``uDPFz sPFQmPFAHPªPì nPLA uTP``ukPP CPFE`wxPF``u`bPL pPOLwxPF``ulPA sPFADPFArPNP mPFAnFU``uXPrP jPLQHP``unPL nPLAnPLABPOA``uHPP|

E`HPMSPFSPFtPOA¡PQ``utPO E`HP¸PPA``unPLrP jPLbPLyPAÀeOL`A E`kPPÙUO sPFHPE`dPLkPP E`dPL``u`bPL mPFAnFU``uXPrP sFU``uKPrP kPPArPNP hPF``u`bPL dPLAÿwxPFAbPLE`nPLP| mPFAnFU``uXPrP hPFA``utPO ePvhPF E`HPSPFAlP 'sPFÆPFAHPnPLA' eP``unPL E`dPL``u`bPL``uCPF asPFAmPFz oPF ulPABPO ; fPO``ulP dLUE`WvPF E`HPSL÷PyUªPì CPFAwxPFAoPF mPFAnFUXP aAjPL upPOL``u`bPL``uCPF '``uBPOAgPO aTPYnPLQE`tPO' ( consumption economy ) -wvPOnÔPbPL``unPLrP ePvhPF mPF``uwPOlP DPFQ``u`rP DPFQ``u`rP çLgPFAsPF kPP``u`rP``uCPF sPFArPA E`HPSL÷P``ukPPP| ePrP çpPOLE`tPOfPOlPnPL hPFlP pPOLE`rP``uHPSPF dLZXP``uNPP|
ePWvPFA E`VPFkPP nPLbPL uyP E`HP¸PPAnPLQrPA aAmPFA``udPLrP sPFAHPDPFAnPL kPP``u`rP udPLnPLE`nPLP| aAjPL uTP``ukPP 124 HPCPFrP aA``ugPO ujPLmPFsPF hPFzAnPL``usPFnPL ( mPFAß. yUÀoPLÝrPA``uæFêPLrP nPLAsPFA gPOwPOAwPOY vhPFÓOLsLPE`WvPFWvUF``uWvPFrP aDPFz¾PP ), 1888 LçLKPQ-utPO mPFAE`kPPYnPL E`sPF``unPL``uWvPF ePkPP sPFA¾PPzdPLAnPL çpPOLsPF``uËP aHPE`hPFtPO kPP``u`rPE`CPF``ulPnPL uyP 'çLgPFQNPhPFAwvPOsPF EÀePÝbPLAkPPlPApPOL' 1880 LçLKPQ uTP``ukPP 1888 LçLKPQ-rP mPF``uDPFz E`HP``uSL÷PrP tPOApPOLmPFAnPL HPAE`wxPF``u`bPL``uCPF 0.6 E`wPOçLgPFQ usPFlPE`sPFbPLAsPFP| 1896 LçLKPQ-utPO sFUvhPFE`wPOSPF rPsPFAbPLnPL E`HP¸PPAnPLQ Svante Arrhenius udPLEKP``u`bPLE`CPF``ulPnPL uyP, kPPbPLlPA-dPLhPFnPL HPAbLUmPFLÕPL``ulP E`HPE`BPOnÔP gPOzA``usPFrP mPF``uDPFz uyP BPOArPsPFAmPFz HPtPOYmPFAnPL, tPOA``ukPP E`HPE`GÔPtPO kPPrP``uHPP| E`tPOE`nPL cUFwxPFAÙPO E`sPFªPìAÙPO E`dPL``u`bPLE`CPF``ulPnPL- a-E`nPLbPLE`ÓFíPLtPOBPOA``uHP kPPbPLlPA-dPLhPFnPL HPAbLUmPFLÕPL``ulP ePtPO kPPArPHPnPL- wPOAvhPF- a½PAvhPFwPO yUÀoPLÝ kPPrP``uHP uyP E`HP``uSL÷PrP tPOApPOLmPFAnPL HPEDPFYtPO hPF``uHP akPPÜPnPLQbPLBPOA``uHPP|

nPL``uBPOÈ÷PrP, 1972 : unPLA``uHPlP fPOAwvPO``uLÕPLSPFnPL aA``u`bPLAE`jPLtPO ePkPP E`HPtPOkPPY sPFBPOArP fPOlP`çLSPFqE`tPO E`hPFsPFA``uHP wvPOE`ªPgLÔP E`HP¸PPAnPLQ``udPLrP sPFE`ÈOLÉPlPnPLQ uTP``ukPP çpPOLcPFAE`rPtPO ePkPP uGPLAXPNPApPOL``uÀeOL` 104jPLnPL unPLA``uHPlP FpOLUrPãFFkPPArPçpPOLAâPL E`HP¸PPAnPLQ sPFhPF E`HP``uSL÷PrP 1,700 E`HP¸PPAnPLQrPA sPFAHPDPFAnPLHPANPQ wvPO©LcPFArPNP kPP``u`rPE`CPF``ulPnPL [pPOLwxPUnPL : ' mPFnFUXPz``uñPLrP kPPA``uCPF E`HP``uSL÷PrP E`HP¸PPAnPLQ``udPLrP sPFAHPDPFAnPLHPANPQ' ]P|
aAE`mPF mPF``unPL kPPE`rP, ePkPPE`HPMSPF SPFtPOA¡PQrP E`HP¸PPAnPLQ``udPLrP sPFAmPF``unPL rP``u`bPL``uCPF dLUE`WvPF aASFU sPFmPFsPFzA : ÀePÝmPFHPDPFYmPFAnPL jPLnPLsPFMKPzArP mFU``uKP E`kPP BPOA``uHP KPAdPLz uyPAgPOA``uHPnPL, ePHPM ' aAHPhPFAoPFbPLA pPOLE`rPHPtPOYnPL ' sPFÑPAtPO sPFmPFsPFzAP|
E`HPMSPF SPFtPOA¡PQrP E`HP¸PPA``unPL uyPsPFHP aAE`HPúPOArP, wvPO«PFAHPnPL ePHPM E`kPPCUF mFZlP GPLWvPFnPLA aAmPFrPA nPLQ``ucPF wvPO``u`ÂlPKP kPPrP``uHPA usPFgOUE`lP cPFbPLnPL kPPrPA KLUHPvhPF SPFÀoPLÝ ePWvPFA aApPOLnPLArPA E`nPLåcPFbPLvhPF ãO÷PQkPPArP kPPrP``uHPnPLP| eP E`HPXP``u`bPL aAmPFrPA dLUE`WvPF çpPOLkPPASPFnPLArP sPFAhPFAyPz E`nPL``u`bPLE`CPF [ 2, 3 ]P|

ædPêPLHPz:
[1] 'defining moments in SCIENCE ', UK 2008, Cassell Illustrated, Octopus Publishing Limited, London E14 4JP*, FpOLÖ 12P|
[2] ibid. aAmPFA``udPLrP mPF``unPL hPFbPL anPLHPdPLz ePvhPF HPvhPFE`WvPF E`HP``uSL÷PrP çpPOLE`tPOE`WvPF E`HPSL÷PE`HPdPLzAlPbPL oPF gPO``uHPXPNPAgPOA``u`rP sPFMrPE`¾PPtPO TPAkPPA wvPOE`cPFtPOP|
[3] Chronology of twentieth-century science, “ A Century of Nature : Twenti-One Discoveries that Changed Science and the World “, Laura Garwin and Tim Lincoln, editors.*

E`HPMSPFSPFtPOA¡PQ``utPO E`HP¸PPA``unPL E`kPPCUF
aAE`HPúPOArP oPF wvPO«PFAHPnPL ePHPM GPLWvPFnPLA

( 1 )

ukPPAbPLA×FWvPFAmPF tPOÀoFüOL

GPLWvPFnPLA : 1900 LçLKPQêPLA¡P
E`HP¸PPAnPLQ : mPFzA½P ÂpPFAÌPO

uHPADPF kPPE`rP E`HPMSPF SPFtPOA¡PQrP sPFHPYA``upPOL¾PPA wvPOµüPlP GPLWvPFnPLA hPFlP jPLAmPFYAnPL E`HP¸PPAnPLQ mPFzA½P ÂpPFA``uÌPOrP '``ukPPAbPLA×FWvPFAmPF tPOÀoFüOL' wvPO«PFAHPnPL yPArP ªPArPA ÂpPFzAÌPO pPOLdPLATPY E`HP¸PPA``unPLrP ePkPP nFZtPOnPL E`dPLgPO``uÙPOrP dPLrPjPLA KLU``ulP E`dPL``u`bPL E`HPE`kPPrPNP SPFEÀoPLÝrP E`nPLbPLmPFE`WvPF KLUÿ``ujPL HPArP kPP``u`rP ePkPP E`nPLE`åcPFtPO wvPOnÔPE`tPOrP sPFA¾PPrP rPAKP``ulPnPLP| usPFE`dPLnPLE`WvPF E`CPFlP 1900 LçLKPQêPLA``u¡PrP 19 a``uÁPOAHPrP : mPFzA½P ÂpPFAÌPO HPAE`lPYnPL E`HPSL÷PE`sPFdPLzAlP``u`bPL pPOLdPLATPY E`HP¸PPA``unPLrP ePkPP usPFE`mPFnPLA``u`rP wvPOpPOLëPOApPOLnPL kPPrP``ulPnPL ePkPPE`WvPF nFZtPOnPL fPOrPmFZlPA- kFÖOXOLÎHPéUF uTP``ukPP E`HPE`kPPrP``uNPrP ePnPL²æWvPFEpPOL fPOrPmFUlPA``ukPP aArPoPF HPzApPOLkPP kPP``u`rP pPOLE`rPHPEDPFYtPO kPP``u`rP ; uyPnPL GPL``uWvPF ugPO``ulPA ePkPP E`nPLßSPF¡P E`HPÂpPFHPP|
usPF sPFmPFbPL pPOLdPLATPY E`HPdPLzAbPL ePkPP E`HPrPAWvPF sPFmPFsPFzA E`CPFlP kFÖOXOLÎHPéUF ( blackbody ) uTP``ukPP uHPE`wxPF``u`bPL aAsPFA E`HPE`kPPrPrP``uNPrP cPFE`rPÀeOL` HPzAKPzA kPPrPAP| sPFnPLAtPOnPLQ tPOApPOL-gPOE`tPO E`HPdPLzA ePvhPF sPFmPFsPFzA sPFÈOFpOLZNPYBPOA``uHP sPFmPFADPFAnPL kPPrP``utPO pPOLA``u`rP nPLAP| eP E`HPXP``u`bPL kPPAjPL kPP``u`rPnPL E`HPMSPF SPFtPOA¡PQrP SFUrPq``utPO E`HPESPFêPL pPOLrPQ¾PPAmFZlPkPP E`HP¸PPAnPLQ uhPFnPLE`rPkPP rPq``uHPnPL, aAnPLYãOFWvPF EçpPOLMsPFAvhPFmPF, a``uWvPFA lUTPAnPL çpPOLmFUKP aArPoPF E`HP¸PPAnPLQ ; aArP wvPOðsPFAhPFQ tPOAE`ñPLkPP E`HP¸PPAnPLQ``udPLrP mPF``uDPFz E`CPF``ulPnPL wPO`ÂFHU E`BPOnPL, lPwPOY rPzA``ulP ePHPM ukPP. ePvhPFcPF. E`jPLnPLsPF²P|
kFÖOXOLÎHPéUF ePmPFnPL ePkPPE`WvPF HPéUF yPArP wvPOpPOL``u`rP aApPOLE`tPOtPO sPFkPPlP tPOrPËPû``udPL``uGPLYzrP tPOE`wxPFð-cUFÈ÷PkPPQbPL tPOrPËP uSPFAXPNP kPP``u`rP unPLbPLP| ePkPPE`WvPF gPO``utPOYrP sPFrPq mFUKP HPA oPF``uBPO``unPLrP dPLrPjPLA kPPAyPYtPOß kFÖOXOLÎHPéUFrP mPFtPOnPL HPzHPhPFArP kPP``u`rPP| 1792 LçLKPQ-utPO E`WvPF. oPF``u`bPLjPLwvPOwPO lP¾PPz kPP``u`rPE`CPF``ulPnPL uyP tPOAEpPOLtPO sPFkPPlP HPéUF ePkPPvhPF tPOApPOLmPFAÀeOL`AbPL rPEÀoPLÝmPF hPF``u`bPL yPAbPLP| pPOLrPHPtPOYQkPPA``ulP ePvhPF anFUmPFA``unPLrP sPFE`VPFkPP HPzAKPzA udPLnPL kPPArPcPFfPOP| 1859 LçLKPQ-utPO E`tPOE`nPL tPOApPOL-gPOE`tPO tPO``uÀoFüOLrP mPFADPFz``umPF çpPOLmPFANP kPP``u`rPnPL uyP E`HPE`kPPrPNP SPFEÀoPLÝ oPF uSPFAXPNP sPFhPF``ugPOrP anFUpPOLAtPO ukPPHPlP mPFAÀeOL` kPPÈOLpPOLAMkPP oPF tPOApPOLmPFAÀeOL`ArP a``upPOL¾PPkPP, HPéUFrP cPFE`rP``uÀeOL`rP wvPOpPOLrP E`nPLBPOYrPSPFQlP nPLbPLP|
1893 LçLKPQ-utPO wPOHP²lU BPOAvhPFnPL aA``u`rPkPP DPFApPOL ePEgPO``u`bPL tPOApPOL-gPOE`tPO tPOÀoFüOL oPF mPFzA½PoPF``u`bPL``ulPrP tPOÀoFüOL``ukPP sPFMyUÀoPLÝ kPP``u`rP udPLKPA``utPO sPF¾PPmPF hPF``ulPnPL E`HPE`kPPrPNPSPFEÀoPLÝ dLUE`WvPF sPFMKPzArP gOUNPfPOlPP| sPFMKPzAdLUE`WvPF hPFlP : kPPÈOLpPOLA``uÌPOrP EÀeOL`GPLAtPO oPF kPPÈOLpPOLAÌPO- tPOApPOLmPFAÀeOL`ArP anFUpPOLA``utPOrP a``upPOL¾PPkPPP| yPE`dPLoPF BPOAvhPF``unPLrP E`nPLbPLmPF uTP``ukPP sPFhPF``ujPLvhPF E`ãOFWvPF``ufPOnPL-ePrP E`nPLbPL``umPF aAsPFA yPAbPL tPOTPAEpPOL ePvhPF tPO``uÀoFüOL E`HPE`kPPrPNPSPFEÀoPLÝ asPFQmPF hPF``utPO cPFAvhPFlP yPA² eP``ukPPHPA``u`rPvhPF asPFÆPFHPP|
kFÖOXOLÎHPéUFrP udPLoPFbPLA``ulP hPFAE`jPLYbPLAnPL kPPÈOLpPOLkPP``udPLrP ePkPP rPkPPmPF SPFEÀoPLÝ -HP×FWvPFnPL HPzHPëPOA oPF ePkPP DPFrP``uNPrP ePnPLæWvPFEpPOL HP×FWvPFnPL-HPzHPëPOA aA``uCPFP| sPFAmPFz aHPëPOAbPL ePnPLæWvPFEpPOL sPFHP``ucPF``u`bPL uHPESPF hPF``utPO hPF``uHP ePHPM tPOA' pPOLE`rPsPFMKPzAnPL pPOLªPìE`tPOrP sPFAhPFA``uyPz gPONPnPLA kPPrPA yPAbPL uHPAlPjPL²mPFzA``unPLrP umPF´E`lPkPP sPFmPFQkPPrPNPE`WvPF kPPA``ujPL lPAEgPO``u`bPLP| sPFÆPFAHPztPOA gPONPnPLA kPPrP``utPO EgPO``u`bPL ÂpPFzAÌPO udPLKP``ulPnPL kPPÈOLpPOL``ukPPrP SPFEÀoPLÝ``ukPP uCPFAWvPF aTPcPF sPFsPFQmPF aM``uSPF- ' ukPPAbPLA×FWvPFA '-bPL BPOAgPO kPP``u`rP ufPOlPA sFUE`HPDPFAjPLnPLkPPP| ePvhPF anFUmPFA``unPLrP sPFAhPFA``uyPz ÂpPFzAÌPO ePkPPE`WvPF kPPÈOLpPOL``ukPPrP gPOwxPF SPFEÀoPLÝ pPOLE`rPmPFApPOL kPPrP``utPO pPOLArP``ulPnPLP| ePrP uTP``ukPPvhPF eP``ulPA kFÖOXOLÎHPéUF E`HPE`kPPrPNP fPOrPmFZlPAP|
1931 LçLKPQ-utPO mPFAE`kPPYnPL yUÀoPLÝrPA``uæFêPLrP pPOLdPLATPY E`HP¸PPAnPLQ aArP wPOHP²lU wvPOwPO ÂpPFzAÌPO``ukPP E`jPL¸PPAsPFA kPP``u`rPnPL uyP ukPPAbPLA×FWvPFAmPF tPO``uÀoFüOLrP mPFtPOnPL ePkPPE`WvPF aE`HPSL÷PAsPFz E`jPLE`nPLXP E`kPP BPOA``uHP aAE`HPúPOArP kPPrP``ulPnPLP| ÂpPFzA``uÌPOrP wvPOÀoP`LrP hPFlP:

"It was an act of desperation. For six years I had struggled
with the black body theory. I knew that the problem was
fundamental and I knew the answer. I had to find a
theoretical explanation at any cost, except for the invio-
lability of the two laws of thermodynamics." [1 ]

"KPAE`nPLkPPWvPFA mPFE`rPbPLA hPF``u`bPL eP kPPAjPL kPP``u`rPE`CPFP| CPFbPL HPCPFrP
DPF``u`rP aAE`mPF kFÖOXOLÎHPéUF E`HPE`kPPrPNP tPOÀoFüOL E`nPL``u`bPL sPFMçLgPFAmPF
kPP``u`rPE`CPFP| aAE`mPF jPLAnPLtPOAmPF sPFmPFsPFzAE`WvPF umPF´E`lPkPP ePHPM tPOArP
wvPOÀoP`LrP aAmPFArP jPLAnPLA E`CPFlPP| uyP ukPPAnPLoPF wvPOpPOLA``u`bPL aAmPFA``ukPP
tPOAEÀoFüOLkPP HPzAKPzA HPArP kPPrP``utPO hPF``uHP yPA tPOApPOLgPOE`tPOtPO``uÀoFüOLrP
dLUE`WvPF E`nPLbPLmPF E`HPE`GÔPtPO kPPrP``uHP nPLAP|"

ædPêPLHPz: [ 1 ] Armim Herman, The genesis of quantum theory, MIT press, 1971, pp 23 ;
wPOß SPFÌPOrP usPFnPLgOUâPL : E`HPMSPF SPFtPOA¡PQrP pPOLdPLATPYE`HPdPLzA oPF HPzEÀoPLÝñPL, uHPãOFWvPFHUkPPsPF², kPPlPkPPAtPOAP|

SPFÌPOrP usPFnP L

( cPFlP``uHP )

(aApPOLnPLArP mPFÙPOHPz jPLAnPLA``unPLArP jPL``unPLz EÂFkPPkPP kPPrPqnPL)

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